After the Day of Pentecost, Peter and John are in the temple proclaiming the gospel. When the religious authorities attempt to dissuade them from preaching about Jesus, Peter responds,
Christian theologians have generally taken one of three positions across a broad spectrum. I will outline them briefly, then treat in more detail the position that has the strongest biblical support. The two extreme positions are restrictivism and universalism.
I. The Extreme Positions
While both positions claim biblical support, they do not always give careful regard to the context of passages they cite which, consequently, undermines rather than undergirds their assertions.
At the other end of the spectrum from restrictivism, which excludes most people from salvation, is universalism, which includes most people in salvation. The common version of universalism does not view death as an obstacle to evangelization.18
5. It identifies the wrong attribute of God as the most important attribute. It assumes love is His primary motivation, but there is another even more compelling.34
Although both restrictivists and universalists claim biblical support for their views, they do not always give careful regard to the context of passages they cite. Consequently, neither restrictivism nor universalism offers a suitable solution to the fate of the unevangelized. There is, however, a less extreme view, one that does more justice to the biblical evidence as a whole. This mediating position is inclusivism.
II. The Mediating Position
Like the previous views, this position also claims biblical support, but with more careful regard to the contexts of passages it cites, which in turn undergirds its tenets.
2. Salvation requires faith in God, with the possibility of rejecting Him.
God has established one way of salvation for all people in all periods of history (Ryrie 1965:123).46
The Bible contains several examples of people who knew God without having the benefit of the gospel (e.g., Melchizedek, Job, Jethro).48 Luke offers two such examples during the growth of the early church. The first example is from Peter's experience with a group of God-fearers, gentiles who worshipped Israel's God but who did not covert to Judaism.
The second example Luke gives is from Paul's experience in Athens, when he speaks on Mars Hill.
In addition to the biblical evidence, there is significant anthropological support for the claim that God has promoted an awareness of Him among people who have not heard the gospel. If, as the biblical account indicates, all mankind descends from Noah, then religious traditions which differ from the scriptural model represent a divergence of or degradation in belief (Anderson 1970:76).53 Moreover, it should not be surprising to find in diverse cultures some remnant of truth about God.
Nevertheless, God must draw the line somewhere. The content of faith is not entirely open-ended.55 At what point does one person not believe enough and another person just believe enough? ...An individual's knowledge, while limited, must still contain an essentially sound core, and his actions must correspond with what he knows. The biblical authors mention several necessary elements in...56
discern, because...59
Despite the availability of general revelation, however, and the many more who have access to it than to the gospel alone, not everyone will accept its evidenc.62
Some will choose an impersonal force rather than a personal God. Others will elect a personal god but one who makes no moral demands. Such deficient views will not direct an individual to the true God and will, in fact, take the vast majority away from Him. As Jesus says,
For the Endnotes, see the pdf here.
Acts 4:12 Salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given to men by which we must be saved.From this passage, it would seem that God determines people's final destiny according to their acceptance or rejection of Jesus.2 Indeed, Jesus, himself, says that the future disposition of men's souls is dependent upon their relationship to him.3
John 14:6 ...I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me.Moreover, the biblical authors indicate that rejecting Jesus is tantamount to rejecting God and that the result is eternal condemnation.4 John states,
John 3:36 Whoever believes in the Son has eternal life, but whoever rejects the Son will not see life, for God's wrath remains on him.The assurance of eternal life is comforting for us who have accepted the gospel, but what about those who have not had this opportunity? What is the fate of the unevangelized, of those who never heard about Jesus (or who heard a distorted message)? The question is statistically significant, because it concerns the vast majority of people who have ever lived (Fudge 1994:615). It is also theologically significant, because it reflects (or affects) our understanding of God's character.
Christian theologians have generally taken one of three positions across a broad spectrum. I will outline them briefly, then treat in more detail the position that has the strongest biblical support. The two extreme positions are restrictivism and universalism.
I. The Extreme Positions
While both positions claim biblical support, they do not always give careful regard to the context of passages they cite which, consequently, undermines rather than undergirds their assertions.
A. The tenets of restrictivism51. Salvation requires special revelation, which God makes available through a human agent.6
Rom 1:18 The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of men who suppress the truth by their wickedness, 19 since what may be known about God is plain to them, because God has made it plain to them. 20 For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that men are without excuse.
a. Claim: General revelation exposes man's need of salvation and God's penalty for rebellion, which is true, but it offers no solution; Only special revelation (i.e., the gospel) relates God's provision for that need, but such an assertion is beyond the point of this passage.
b. Critique: The Romans text does not treat how a person receives salvation but how he deserves condemnation (i.e., that rejecting God's revelation is tantamount to rejecting God).7
2. Salvation requires faith in Jesus, with the possibility of rejecting him.9
- This passage is part of a larger discussion in which Paul makes the same assertion about gentiles and Jews (i.e., rejecting revelation, general or special = rejecting God)8
Acts 4:12 Salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given to men by which we must be saved.
a. Claim: Before Jesus' advent, saints looked for the messiah who would come;10 after Jesus' advent, saints look to the messiah who has come.
b. Critique: The Acts text does not treat what a person must know for salvation but what he must have for salvation (i.e., "name" = "provision for" not "information about" cf. "I am the way" John 14:6).11 This is an important distinction.
3. Salvation requires a decision before death, at which time there is no opportunity for pardon.13
- Moreover, while some Old Testament saints may have had a prophetic glimpse of the messiah, to assume such insight was readily available to most OT saints, even in Israel, is both unreasonable and unsupportable.12
Heb 9:27 ...man is destined to die once, and after that to face judgment,
a. Claim: A person's eternal destiny is sealed in this life.
b. Critique: The Hebrews text does indicate that the offer of forgiveness is limited to this life.
1) The following verse links the finality of divine judgment to the finality of Jesus' atonement, because death moves people inexorably to the next step in the divine plan:
a) For the savior, that next step is his return.
b) For the saints, that next step is their redemption.
2) The following verse also contrasts the fate of those who rejected Jesus with the destiny of those who accepted him.
Despite the prevalence of this view among Christians, there are flaws (in addition to its faulty treatment of the biblical text) that make restrictivism an unlikely representation of what God will do.Heb 9:28 so Christ was sacrificed once to take away the sins of many people; and he will appear a second time..to bring salvation to those who are waiting for him.
B. The (additional) troubles with restrictivism1. It places the burden of man's salvation squarely on the evangelistic efforts of believers.14:
a. If, however, God wants "everyone to come to repentance" (2 Pet 3:9b) and "to be saved" (1 Tim 2:4a) but limits the opportunity to the scope of Christian missions, then He severely restricts the fulfillment of that goal and excludes the vast majority of all who have ever lived.
b. As we shall see in a later position, though, this burden and this limitation may be artificial.2. It places a limit on how God might choose to work, a limit that exceeds what He indicates in scripture.15
- "If God actually desires all people to be saved.., then it is reasonable to look for ways in which God might fulfill that desire" and give the vast majority an opportunity to respond (Sanders 1992:61).
a. On the one hand, it limits the number of the saved by including only those who would have known Jesus, which is less than scripture includes.
- There is clear evidence that OT saints (e.g., Abraham, David) were justified (saved) by faith in God the Father.16
b. On the other hand, it expands the number of the saved by assuming that those who would not have known Jesus were actually informed about him, which is more than scripture indicates.
While the restrictivist view advocates a narrow interpretation of some biblical passages, it introduces a broad interpretation of other biblical passages and violates Paul's admonition: "Do not go beyond what is written" (1 Cor 4:6b).
- There is no evidence that OT saints (e.g., Abraham, David) were aware of atonement through Jesus the Son.17
At the other end of the spectrum from restrictivism, which excludes most people from salvation, is universalism, which includes most people in salvation. The common version of universalism does not view death as an obstacle to evangelization.18
C. The tenets of universalism (a.k.a. restorationism)191. Salvation requires special revelation, which God makes available through a supernatural agent.20
1 Pet 4:6 For this is the reason the gospel was preached even to those who are now dead, so that they might be judged according to men in regard to the body, but live according to God in regard to the spirit.
a. Claim: Salvation is reachable by all people because, to those who did not hear the gospel in life, an angel or Jesus will declare it to them in death.
- Consequently, hell is a temporary place of punishment (similar to purgatory), where the wicked remain until they come to faith in Jesus.
b. Critique: The 1 Peter text does not offer hope for the unrighteous, whose self-gratifying lifestyle disqualifies them for heaven; rather, it treats the different prospects that await the righteous and the unrighteous.
2. Salvation requires faith in Jesus, and without the possibility of rejecting him.22
- According to v. 5, the unrighteous "will give account" for their behavior and, according to v. 17, these "who do not obey the gospel of God" will face an unpleasant future.21
Phil 2:9 Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the name that is above every name, 10 that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, 11 and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.
a. Claim: Salvation is inevitable for all people, because the love and persistence of God compel Him to save all.23
- He will eventually overcome all resistance to His will.
b. Critique: The Philippians text does not indicate that all will submit willingly but simply states that, in the final exaltation of Jesus, friend and foe alike will acknowledge his sovereignty.
3. Salvation permits a decision after death, at which time there is still opportunity for pardon.
- There is no support for assuming their confession in all cases will be an expression of faith.
1 Cor 15:22 For as in Adam all die, so in Christ all will be made alive. 23 But each in his own turn.... 25 For he must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet. 26 The last enemy to be destroyed is death.
a. Claim: Salvation is applicable to all people because the omnipotence and justice of God enable Him to save.24
- Jesus' atonement is ultimately efficacious for everyone.
b. Critique: The 1 Corinthians text does not treat when God will raise everyone, only when He will raise believers.
Despite the attraction of believing that God will ultimately save everyone, there are several serious flaws in universalism that make it an unlikely representation of what God will do.
- According to v. 23, "when he [Christ] comes, those who belong to him" will rise, leaving those who do not belong to him for later.25
D. The (additional) troubles with universalism1. It sets up a false dilemma by demanding that one choose between a loving, omnipotent God—who is willing and able to save men no matter how hardened their hearts may be against Him—and an unloving or impotent God—who is unwilling or unable to save them.
a. There is no such dilemma because, as we shall see in the next position, God has made salvation universally accessible (not universally applicable), proving that He is both omnipotent and loving.26
b. If some insist upon rejecting His offer, they have chosen their destiny and have no one to blame but themselves.2. It pits divine mercy against divine justice and assumes that they cannot be equal in the matter of man's eternal destiny but that His mercy must be greater than His justice.27
a. Even if these attributes were equal, there is a limit to what God will abide, and some sins exceed that limit.28
b. Moreover, passages that refer to God's final judgment "offer no hope for the [subsequent] reconciliation of those who...reject God's grace" (Sanders 1992:109).293 It assumes that man's freedom to accept or reject God's forgiveness limits God's sovereignty,30 and that only with mankind's voluntary submission is God truly preeminent.
a. That belief accords man far too great an influence on, and importance in, the divine plan, as if God needs man's cooperation.31
b. It also skirts the implication of free will and of continued rebellion after death.324. It fails to account for the many biblical passages that speak about final condemnation and the possibility of placing oneself outside the kingdom.33
5. It identifies the wrong attribute of God as the most important attribute. It assumes love is His primary motivation, but there is another even more compelling.34
a. The major premise, that a merciful God would not condemn anyone to eternal punishment, rests on the assumption that love overrides His desire for justice.
- While God may show greater mercy than judgment (see n. 27), He never exercises His mercy at the expense of His justice.35
b. God is, indeed, "loving toward all he has made" (Ps 145:13, 17), but that attribute is not His most prominent, nor is it the chief consideration in His dealings with man.
The universalist view fails to recognize the preeminent attribute of God, which is holiness, the divine quality that subsumes and surpasses all others.36 Only holiness accounts for the justice of God, even as it allows for the mercy of God.
- While God's love is, indeed, an important divine attribute, there is another even more important.
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Although both restrictivists and universalists claim biblical support for their views, they do not always give careful regard to the context of passages they cite. Consequently, neither restrictivism nor universalism offers a suitable solution to the fate of the unevangelized. There is, however, a less extreme view, one that does more justice to the biblical evidence as a whole. This mediating position is inclusivism.
II. The Mediating Position
Like the previous views, this position also claims biblical support, but with more careful regard to the contexts of passages it cites, which in turn undergirds its tenets.
- The tenets of inclusivism37
Ps 19:1 The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim the work of his hands. 2 Day after day they pour forth speech; night after night they display knowledge. 3 There is no speech or language where their voice is not heard. 4a Their voice goes out into all the earth, their words to the ends of the world.
a. Claim: General revelation has redemptive value because it derives from and directs people to the God who saves.39
- Moreover, God judges people on their response to the revelation they have.40
b. Critique: The Psalm text does indicate that general revelation, despite its limitations in not offering a full account of God's redemptive plan, has always been available to direct people to the God who saves.
- In this way, salvation has always been available, for there is continuity and consistency in God's saving work throughout history, Old Testament to New Testament and beyond.
2. Salvation requires faith in God, with the possibility of rejecting Him.
Rom 4:3 What does the Scripture say? "Abraham believed God, and it was credited to him as righteousness." ...5 However, to the man who does not work but trusts God who justifies the wicked, his faith is credited as righteousness.... 23 The words "it was credited to him" were written not for him alone, 24 but also for us, to whom God will credit righteousness—for us who believe in him who raised Jesus our Lord from the dead.
a. Claim: It is not the content of faith that saves but the object of faith.41
NB: The basis for salvation is and always has been the atoning work of Jesus, "the lamb that was slain from the creation of the world" (Rev 13:8), even though most people may not have realized it.42
- Faith must have content (an awareness of God), but the nature and extent of that content may vary (hence, the distinction between "believers" and "Christians"; e.g., Cornelius).43
b. Critique: The Romans text does indicate that the proper object of faith is God the Father, without which there is no salvation.
3. Salvation requires a decision before death, after which time there is no opportunity for pardon.
- Moreover, both theological constraints are valid: the universal supposition that God wants all people to be saved (vocation)44 and the particular restriction that only those in Christ can be saved (election).45
Heb 9:27 ...man is destined to die once, and after that to face judgment,
a. Claim: A person's eternal destiny is sealed in this life.
b. Critique: The Hebrews text does indicate that the offer of forgiveness is limited to this life.
Inclusivism does more justice to the biblical evidence as a whole than either of the extreme positions, restrictivism or universalism. As such, this mediating position offers a suitable solution to the fate of the unevangelized. It recognizes that...
- There is no second chance after death, no occasion to reconsider an earlier decision or make up for procrastination.
God has established one way of salvation for all people in all periods of history (Ryrie 1965:123).46
- The motivation for salvation is always God's grace,
- The basis for salvation is always Jesus' death,
- The requirement for salvation is always man's faith,
- The object of faith is always (and ultimately) God the Father, but
- The content of faith varies.
The Bible contains several examples of people who knew God without having the benefit of the gospel (e.g., Melchizedek, Job, Jethro).48 Luke offers two such examples during the growth of the early church. The first example is from Peter's experience with a group of God-fearers, gentiles who worshipped Israel's God but who did not covert to Judaism.
Acts 10:1a At Caesarea there was a man named Cornelius.... 2 He and all his family were devout and God-fearing; he gave generously to those in need and prayed to God regularly. 3 One day at about three in the afternoon he had a vision. He distinctly saw an angel of God, who came to him and said, "Cornelius!" 4 Cornelius stared at him in fear. "What is it, Lord?" he asked. The angel answered, "Your prayers and gifts to the poor have come up as a memorial offering before God.Cornelius was a believer and, despite not having accepted the gospel, his life was pleasing to God.49 Later, Peter explains why this is so.
Acts 10:34b ...God does not show favoritism 35 but accepts men from every nation who fear him and do what is right.God saves people not because they understand the doctrine of the atonement but because they "fear him and do what is right" (Morgan 1924:281).50 Hence, Peter recognizes that Cornelius already has a relationship with God. The apostle's task is to enhance that relationship by explaining what God has done through Jesus.51
The second example Luke gives is from Paul's experience in Athens, when he speaks on Mars Hill.
Acts 17:22 Paul...stood up in the meeting of the Areopagus and said: "Men of Athens! I see that in every way you are very religious. 23 For as I walked around and looked carefully at your objects of worship, I even found an altar with this inscription: TO AN UNKNOWN GOD. Now what you worship as something unknown I am going to proclaim to you.Paul says that "[i]n some clearly imperfect but nonetheless genuine sense, the Athenians did worship the true God" (Sanders 1992:246).52 The apostle also notes that they recognize God as the creator.
Acts 17:28b As some of your own poets have said, 'We are his offspring.'Most significant is what Paul indicates is possible through general revelation.
Acts 17:26 From one man he made every nation of men, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and he determined the times set for them and the exact places where they should live. 27 God did this so that men would seek him and perhaps reach out for him and find him, though he is not far from each one of us.Then Paul proceeds to describe the fuller revelation of the gospel, and a few of them "believed" (v. 34).
In addition to the biblical evidence, there is significant anthropological support for the claim that God has promoted an awareness of Him among people who have not heard the gospel. If, as the biblical account indicates, all mankind descends from Noah, then religious traditions which differ from the scriptural model represent a divergence of or degradation in belief (Anderson 1970:76).53 Moreover, it should not be surprising to find in diverse cultures some remnant of truth about God.
The oral tradition of the Yoruba people of Nigeria, for instance, speaks of a supreme deity who is the creator, lord over space and time, the king of heaven, the one who discerns the hearts of people, the only one who "can speak and accomplish his words," the one who executes judgment, and the one who can be approached as Father. (Sanders 1992:248)Don Richardson, a missionary anthropologist, documents numerous examples of what he terms "redemptive analogies" from other cultures, in his book, Eternity in Their Hearts (1984; see also Strong 1907:843-844). The point is that "God has not been sitting idly by waiting for human missionaries to bring the gospel to these peoples" (Sanders 1992:249). He has left Himself a witness whereby men everywhere may reach out to Him or reject Him. God will accept those who respond positively to the revelation they have, even those whose faith is not as clearly defined as ours. Paul writes to the church in Rome,
Rom 2:6 God "will give to each person according to what he has done." 7 To those who by persistence in doing good seek glory, honor and immortality, he will give eternal life.If God condemns the heathen, those who never heard about Jesus, it will be for the same reason He condemns anyone else: rejection of the revelation they had available to them.54 Paul continues,
Rom 2:8 But for those who are self-seeking and who reject the truth and follow evil, there will be wrath and anger.In other words...
God is concerned more with the basic direction of people's faith
than He is with the specific details of their faith.
Nevertheless, God must draw the line somewhere. The content of faith is not entirely open-ended.55 At what point does one person not believe enough and another person just believe enough? ...An individual's knowledge, while limited, must still contain an essentially sound core, and his actions must correspond with what he knows. The biblical authors mention several necessary elements in...56
A Response Acceptable to God
- One must believe (orthodoxy) in...
- The existence of God
Heb 11:6 ...anyone who comes to him must believe that he exists....
Rom 1:20 For since the creation of the world God's...divine nature [has] been clearly seen...so that men are without excuse.
- The omnipotence of God
Rom 1:20 For since the creation of the world God's...eternal power [has] been clearly seen...so that men are without excuse.
- The benevolence of God
Acts 14:17 ...he has not left himself without testimony: He has shown kindness by giving you rain...and crops...food and...joy.
Heb 11 :6b ...anyone who comes to him must believe...that he rewards those who earnestly seek him.
- One must behave (orthopraxy) with...
- A fear of God57
Acts 10:35 [God] accepts men from every nation who fear him....
- A search for God58
Acts 17:27a God did this so that men would seek him....
Heb 11:6b ...anyone who comes to him must believe that...he rewards those who earnestly seek him.
- An obedience to God
Acts 10:35 [God] accepts men from every nation who...do what is right.
Not everyone has the same information about God, but how a person responds to the information he has reveals an important condition, a condition God is able toRom 2:7 To those who by persistence in doing good seek glory, honor and immortality, he will give eternal life.
discern, because...59
1 Sam 16:7b-c The LORD does not look at the things man looks at. Man looks at the outward appearance, but the LORD looks at the heart.Regardless of how much information an individual may have, if he earnestly desires to know God and uses what he has to seek God, God will honor that faith, however imperfect it may be. As David noted,
1 Chr 29:17a I know, my God, that you test the heart and are pleased with integrity.When all is said and done, and you stand before God, you may be surprised at who else is there. Solomon's observation is pertinent to this final reckoning:60
Prov 24:12 If you say, "But we knew nothing about this," does not he who weighs the heart perceive it? ... Will he not repay each person according to what he has done?Jesus' atoning death is still the only means of forgiveness but, just as God accepted the faithful who lived before the messiah and who knew nothing about his sacrifice, so God may accept the faithful who live after the messiah and who know nothing about his sacrifice (or who have heard a distorted version of that information). This possibility does not absolve you of the responsibility to spread the gospel, because the more people know about God the better their relationship can be with God.... It simply means "there's a wideness in God's mercy."61
Despite the availability of general revelation, however, and the many more who have access to it than to the gospel alone, not everyone will accept its evidenc.62
Some will choose an impersonal force rather than a personal God. Others will elect a personal god but one who makes no moral demands. Such deficient views will not direct an individual to the true God and will, in fact, take the vast majority away from Him. As Jesus says,
Matt 7:13b ...wide is the gate and broad is the road that leads to destruction, and many enter through it. 14 But small is the gate and narrow the road that leads to life, and only a few find it.Again, when considering the fate of the unevangelized, it is important to remember that God is concerned more with the basic direction of people's faith than He is with the specific details of their faith, and He cares more about an individual's progress on the way than He does about an individual's position along the way. It is more important that a person be moving toward God, however distant he may begin, than that a person just know about God, however close to the truth he may be. We might not be able to determine the exact moment a person crosses over from death to life, but God has indicated such a transition is possible even for those who do not know Jesus yet who respond positively to the revelation they have. In all this, we must not discount the Holy Spirit's ability to guide a respondent, to nurture his faith, and to give him further revelation.63
For the Endnotes, see the pdf here.
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Jim Skaggs