New Testament Judaism

JEWISH PARTIES IN THE LATE SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD
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Dr. Paul Manuel—2000

In this study we will examine various political and religious groups in the Second Temple Period. The chart (at the end) should help to keep things straight, as it is a list of these groups, some of which do not appear by name in the New Testament. In most cases, I have listed all the references in Matthew for each group, as well as a few references elsewhere in the New Testament.

I. Major (mainstream) Parties

A. Sanhedrin

Matt 5:22 But I tell you that anyone who is angry with his brother will be subject to judgment. Again, anyone who says to his brother, 'Raca,' is answerable to the Sanhedrin. But anyone who says, 'You fool!' will be in danger of the fire of hell.

Matt 26:59 The chief priests and the whole Sanhedrin were looking for false evidence against Jesus so that they could put him to death.

Acts 23:6 Then Paul, knowing that some of them were Sadducees and the others Pharisees, called out in the Sanhedrin, "My brothers, I am a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee. I stand on trial because of my hope in the resurrection of the dead."

The Sanhedrin was the supreme religious, political, and judicial body in Palestine during the Second Temple Period.¹ Its powers were restricted during Roman rule, but the council continued to exercise considerable authority. For example, of all Jewish courts in Israel, only the Sanhedrin could try a high priest or a false prophet.² It was composed of members from both Sadducean and Pharisaic parties,³ with one group generally predominating. In New Testament times the Sadducees had control of the council, over which the high priest Caiaphas (also a Sadducee) presided.⁴

B. Sadducees

Matt 16:1 The Pharisees and Sadducees came to Jesus and tested him by asking him to show them a sign from heaven.

Matt 22:23 That same day the Sadducees, who say there is no resurrection, came to him with a question.

Acts 4:1 The priests and the captain of the temple guard and the Sadducees came up to Peter and John while they were speaking to the people. 2 They were greatly disturbed because the apostles were teaching the people and proclaiming in Jesus the resurrection of the dead.

Acts 5:17 Then the high priest and all his associates, who were members of the party of the Sadducees, were filled with jealousy.

Acts 23:6 Then Paul, knowing that some of them were Sadducees and the others Pharisees, called out in the Sanhedrin, "My brothers, I am a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee. I stand on trial because of my hope in the resurrection of the dead." ...8 The Sadducees say that there is no resurrection, and that there are neither angels nor spirits, but the Pharisees acknowledge them all.

Sadducees were a political and religious party composed mainly of members from the upper-class (priests, merchants, aristocrats).⁵ They held the majority of seats on the Sanhedrin and were, consequently, the ruling force during the Second Temple Period. Their primary field of influence was in the Temple, as many of the Sadducees were functionaries there. Unlike the Pharisees, they did not believe in Oral Torah, the resurrection, immortality of the soul,⁶ or a developed hierarchy of angels.⁷ Although the Sadducees' position on the Sanhedrin gave them considerable influence in the religious life of Israel, they ceased as a political and religious force after the destruction of the temple in 70 c.e. (Mansoor 1972:620-622).

C. Pharisees

Matt 5:20 For I tell you that unless your righteousness surpasses that of the Pharisees and the teachers of the law, you will certainly not enter the kingdom of heaven.

Matt 9: 1 1 When the Pharisees saw this, they asked his disciples, "Why does your teacher eat with tax collectors and 'sinners'?"

Matt 12:24 But when the Pharisees heard this, they said, "It is only by Beelzebub, the prince of demons, that this fellow drives out demons."

Matt 15:1 Then some Pharisees and teachers of the law came to Jesus from Jerusalem and asked, 2 "Why do your disciples break the tradition of the elders? They don't wash their hands before they eat!" 3 Jesus replied, "And why do you break the command of God for the sake of your tradition? 4 For God said, 'Honor your father and mother' and 'Anyone who curses his father or mother must be pill to death.' 5 But you say that if a man says to his father or mother, 'Whatever help you might otherwise have received from me is a gift devoted to God,' 6 he is not to 'honor his father' with it. Thus you nullify the word of God for the sake of your tradition.

Matt 21:45 When the chief priests and the Pharisees heard Jesus' parables, they knew he was talking about them. 46 They looked for a way to arrest him, but they were afraid of the crowd because the people held that he was a prophet.

Matt 22:41 While the Pharisees were gathered together, Jesus asked them, 42 "What do You think about the Christ? Whose son is he?" "The son of David," they replied.

Matt 23:2 The teachers of the law and the Pharisees sit in Moses' seat. 3 So you must obey them and do everything they tell you. But do not do what they do, for they do not practice what they preach.... 23 Woe to you, teachers of the law and Pharisees, you hypocrites! You give a tenth of your spices—mint, dill and cumin. But you have neglected the more important matters of the law—justice, mercy and faithfulness. You should have practiced the latter, without neglecting the former.... 25 Woe to you, teachers of the law and Pharisees, you hypocrites! You clean the outside of the cup and dish, but inside they are full of greed and self-indulgence.

Matt 27:62 The next day, the one after Preparation Day, the chief priests and the Pharisees went to Pilate.

Acts 23:6 Then Paul, knowing that some of them were Sadducees and the others Pharisees, called out in the Sanhedrin, "My brothers, I am a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee. I stand on trial because of my hope in the resurrection of the dead." ...8 The Sadducees say that there is no resurrection, and that there are neither angels nor spirits, but the Pharisees acknowledge them all.

Pharisees were a political and religious sect that emerged shortly after the Hasmonean revolt (165-160 b.c.e.). At first Pharisees competed with the aristocratic Sadducees for political control but were eventually expelled from the Sanhedrin by John Hyrcanus. During the Roman period, they held seats in the Sanhedrin as the minority party;⁸ but they still had sufficient power to influence council decisions.⁹ Like the Sadducees, most Pharisees advocated a pragmatic acceptance of Roman rule. Unlike the Sadducees, however, the Pharisees represented the beliefs and aspirations of many within the greater Jewish society,¹⁰ and they continued as a reforming, religious force after the destruction of the temple (Mansoor 1972:363-366).¹¹

D. Chief priests

Matt 26:14 Then one of the Twelve—the one called Judas Iscariot—went to the chief priests 15 and asked, "What are you willing to give me if I hand him over to you?" So they counted out for him thirty silver coins.

Matt 28:11 While the women were on their way, some of the guards went into the city and reported to the chief priests everything that had happened. 12 When the chief priests had met with the elders and devised a plan, they gave the soldiers a large sum of money, 13 telling them, "You are to say, 'His disciples came during the night and stole him away while we were asleep.'

Mark 15:3 The chief priests accused him of many things.... 9 "Do you want me to release to you the king of the Jews?" asked Pilate, 10 knowing it was out of envy that the chief priests had handed Jesus over to him. 11 But the chief priests stirred up the crowd to have Pilate release Barabbas instead.

John 12:10 So the chief priests made plans to kill Lazarus as well, 11 for on account of him many of the Jews were going over to Jesus and putting their faith in him.

John 19:15c "We have no king but Caesar," the chief priests answered.

Acts 9:14 And he has come here with authority from the chief priests to arrest all who call on your name.... 21 All those who heard him were astonished and asked, "Isn't he the man who raised havoc in Jerusalem among those who call on this name? And hasn't he come here to take them as prisoners to the chief priests?"

Acts 26:10 And that is just what I did in Jerusalem. On the authority of the chief priests I Put many of the saints in prison, and when they were put to death, I cast my vote against them.... 12 On one of these journeys I was going to Damascus with the authority and commission of the chief priests.

God established the priesthood from the descendants of Aaron soon after the exodus, and this hereditary office continued as Israel's main religious establishment.¹² When Jonathan accepted the position of High Priest from King Alexander (c. 160 c.e.), the post became as much a political office as a religious one, and it was no longer restricted to a particular family line.¹³ Subsequent holders of that title sought to strengthen their position by giving supporters prominent roles in their administration (with control of temple funds¹⁴), whose agenda these chief priests then promoted.¹⁵

E. Scribes

Matt 5:20 For I tell you that unless your righteousness surpasses that of the Pharisees and the teachers of the law, you will certainly not enter the kingdom of heaven.

Matt 7:28 When Jesus had finished saying these things, the crowds were amazed at his teaching, 29 because he taught as one who had authority, and not as their teachers of the law.

Matt 15:1 Then some Pharisees and teachers of the law came to Jesus from Jerusalem and asked, 2 "Why do your disciples break the tradition of the elders? They don't wash their hands before they eat!"

Matt 16:21 From that time on Jesus began to explain to his disciples that he must go to Jerusalem and suffer many things at the hands of the elders, chief priests and teachers of the law, and that he must be killed and on the third day be raised to life.

Matt 17:10 The disciples asked him, "Why then do the teachers of the law say that Elijah must come first?"

Matt 23:2 The teachers of the law and the Pharisees sit in Moses' seat. 3 So you must obey them and do everything they tell you. But do not do what they do, for they do not practice what they preach.

Scribes ("teachers of the law" in NIV) were Torah scholars and copyists. They were probably included among various groups in the Second Temple Period, which is why they are listed with other notables.¹⁶ The gospel writers mention them most frequently with the Pharisees, with whom they shared common beliefs, suggesting that most scribes were probably from that group.¹⁷ Because there is no evidence in the Talmuds of  any legal decisions attributed to them, it may have been in one or more of these other capacities that their responsibilities included generating halakah. In other words, they may not actually constitute a distinct group but rather be those who hold a particular religious position and are by vocation copyists (Gilat 1972:79-80).

F. Elders

Matt 21:23 Jesus entered the temple courts, and, while he was teaching, the chief priests and the elders of the people came to him. "By what authority are you doing these things?" they asked. "And who gave you this authority?"

Matt 26:3 Then the chief priests and the elders of the people assembled in the palace of the high priest, whose name was Caiaphas, 4 and they plotted to arrest Jesus in some sly way and kill him.... 47 While he was still speaking, Judas, one of the Twelve, arrived. With him was a large crowd armed with swords and clubs, sent from the chief priests and the elders of the people.

Matt 27:1 Early in the morning, all the chief priests and the elders of the people came to the decision to put Jesus to death.

Elders represented the people of a given city in certain legal matters; they were local authorities rather than agents of the state.¹⁸ This local usage continued in the New Testament ("elders of the people [of Jerusalem]" Matt 21:23; 26:3, 47; 27:1; and probably 16:21), but the term seems also to have gained a certain degree of flexibility. On the one hand, it may have been used in a narrower sense with reference to the representatives of a particular synagogue rather than of a city.¹⁹ On the other hand, it may have broadened so as to become synonymous with the term Sanhedrin²⁰ or even Sages ("the tradition of the elders" Matt 15:2).

G. Haverim

Haverim ("member") were those who paid strict attention to laws of the heave offering, tithe, and ritual purity.²¹ Like the Essenes, a potential candidate gained entrance to the group after a period of probation. Unlike the Qumranians, however, haverim did not withdraw from society, although they did avoid associating with "commoners". Because both Hillel and Shammai in their respective halakot include rulings on membership (open to men, women, and children), haverim may have been primarily a pharisaic institution. They are not mentioned by name in the New Testament, but there is possible indirect reference to him as a Pharisee (Encyclopaedia Hebraica 1972:1489-1491 ).²²

H. Sages

Sages ("wise men") shaped the religious thinking of Judaism from the Second Temple Period to the Arabian conquest (c. 630 c.e.). They may have been part of any of the groups in this survey (Sanhedrin, Pharisees, scribes, haverim) as well as others (the men of the Great Synagogue, Hasidim, heads of the academies, princes, mystics; Urbach 1972:536). Sages are not mentioned by name as a distinct group in the New Testament.²³

II. Minor Parties

A. Herodians

Matt 22:16 They [the Pharisees] sent their disciples to him along with the Herodians. "Teacher," they said, "we know you are a man of integrity and that you teach the way of God in accordance with the truth. You aren't swayed by men, because you pay no attention to who they are. 17 Tell us then, what is your opinion? Is it right to pay taxes to Caesar or not?"

Mark 3:6 Then the Pharisees went out and began to plot with the Herodians how they might kill Jesus.

Herodians ("partisans of Herod") were political supporters of Herod Antipas who encouraged other Jews to accept his reign, perhaps in preference to direct Roman rule.²⁴ Their opposition to Jesus would be quite natural, therefore, as they saw in the rabbi's messianic claims a threat to the status quo.²⁵ It is uncertain what their relationship to the Pharisees might have been (Hiebert 1975:146).²⁶

B. Zealots

Matt 10:4 Simon the Zealot and Judas Iscariot, who betrayed him.

Acts 1:13 When they arrived, they went upstairs to the room where they were staying. Those present were Peter, John, James and Andrew; Philip and Thomas, Bartholomew and Matthew; James son of Alphaeus and Simon the Zealot, and Judas son of James.

Luke 13:1 Now there were some present at that time who told Jesus about the Galileans whose blood Pilate had mixed with their sacrifices.

Acts 5:37 After him, Judas the Galilean appeared in the days of the census and led a band of people in revolt. He too was killed, and all his followers were scattered.

Zealots were a political party of resistance fighters who opposed the Roman occupation of Palestine. Part of their resistance included not paying taxes. The Pharisees and Herodians were probably alluding to this practice when they questioned Jesus about the subject (see the previous section). If they could trap him into aligning himself with zealots, then they could charge him with promoting insurrection.²⁷

Zealots employed terrorism against non-military personnel, even against Jews they considered collaborators; they were known by the Greek term ("dagger men" > "assassins" NAS or "terrorists" NIV in Acts 21:38). The zealots probably had sympathizers among other groups in the Second Temple Period (e.g., Pharisees, Essenes), even among Jesus' disciples: Simon the zealot, who may have retained his political opposition to Rome even after the resurrection.²⁸ Apart from Simon, though, New Testament references to the zealots are indirect.²⁹ The last members of this group in Palestine perished at Masada in 73 c.e. (Brandon 1972:947-949).

C. Hellenists

Acts 6:1 In those days when the number of disciples was increasing, the Grecian Jews among them complained against the Hebraic Jews because their widows were being overlooked in the daily distribution of food.

Acts 9:29 He talked and debated with the Grecian Jews, but they tried to kill him.

Hellenists ("Grecian Jew" in NIV) were Greek speaking Jews who had adopted (along with the language) certain aspects of Greek culture brought to the region by Alexander the Great. The largest community was in Alexandria, Egypt.³⁰ Their Hebrew and Aramaic speaking brethren viewed assimilation with disdain (e.g., Hellenists needed a Greek translation of the Bible), even as apostate, which may explain the dispute that arose in the early church (Hoehner 1975:117-118).

D. Samaritans

Matt 10:5 These twelve Jesus sent out with the following instructions: "Do not go among the Gentiles or enter any town of the Samaritans."

Luke 9:51 As the time approached for him to be taken up to heaven, Jesus resolutely set out for Jerusalem. 52 And he sent messengers on ahead, who went into a Samaritan village to get things ready for him; 53 but the people there did not welcome him, because he was heading for Jerusalem. 54 When the disciples James and John saw this, they asked, "Lord, do you want us to call fire down from heaven to destroy them?"

Luke 10:33 But a Samaritan, as he traveled, came where the man was; and when he saw him, he took pity on him.

Luke 17:15 One of them, when he saw he was healed, came back, praising God in a loud voice. 16 He threw himself at Jesus' feet and thanked him—and he was a Samaritan.

John 4:9 The Samaritan woman said to him, "You are a Jew and I am a Samaritan woman. How can you ask me for a drink?" (For Jews do not associate with Samaritans.) ...20 Our fathers worshiped on this mountain, but you Jews claim that the place where we must worship is in Jerusalem." ...22 You Samaritans worship what you do not know; we worship what we do know, for salvation is from the Jews.... 25 The woman said, "I know that Messiah" (called Christ) "is coming. When he comes, he will explain everything to us."

John 8:48 The Jews answered him, "Aren't we right in saying that you are a Samaritan and demon-possessed?"

Samaritans ("keeper [of the truth]") trace their existence back before the monarchy to the time of Eli, the judge. According to the group's own historical accounts, the Samaritan community maintained the sacredness of Shechem, which is located on the slope of Mt. Gerizim,³¹ and the group separated from Eli when he moved the cultic center to Shiloh.³² Samaritans never accepted Jerusalem as the site where God chose to dwell;³³ so, they rejected the Temple as well. Samaritans also did not accept any of the biblical documents apart from the Pentateuch (although they did have a concept of the messiah).³⁴

During the Assyrian invasion (722), Samaritans went into exile but returned during the reign of Cyrus (!) at the request of the new inhabitants in Israel.³⁵ They maintained their former loyalty to the LORD even when the new populace preferred religious syncretism to conversion. The exiles of the Southern Kingdom who returned from Babylon did not want the Samaritans involved in the restoration of Jerusalem though, thinking they had intermarried and adopted the syncretism of their pagan neighbors.³⁶ The division between the two communities continued into the Second Temple Period (Matt 10:5; John 4:9; Tsedaka 1972:727-728, 738).

E. Essene

Essenes ("pious ones") were part of a religious group that advocated strict adherence to Torah. They...were similar to the Pharisees in belief but stricter in their concern for ceremonial purity, and they generally led an austere existence. Some of them, perhaps an inner circle of devotees, probably founded the quasi-monastic community at Qumran. Essenes are not mentioned by name in the New Testament (Mansoor 1972:899-902).³⁷

F. Gnostic

Gnostics ("the knowledgeable") claimed that only with the special knowledge they possessed could a person ascend safely through various levels of heaven to reach God. Angelic beings, who might or might not be friendly, controlled these levels and required certain rituals or worship from those who would pass. Although Gnosticism does not appear in the gospels, a Jewish version seems to be what Paul was addressing in his letter to the Colossians (c. 60 c.e.).³⁸

III. Others

Common people

Matt 7:28 When Jesus had finished saying these things, the crowds were amazed at his teaching, 29 because he taught as one who had authority, and not as their teachers of the law.

Matt 9:11 When the Pharisees saw this, they asked his disciples, "Why does your teacher eat with tax collectors and 'sinners'?"

Matt 21:3 lc Jesus said to them, "I tell you the truth, the tax collectors and the prostitutes are entering the kingdom of God ahead of you."

Matt 26:3 Then the chief priests and the elders of the people assembled in the palace of the high priest, whose name was Caiaphas, 4 and they plotted to arrest Jesus in some sly way and kill him. 5 "But not during the Feast," they said, "or there may be a riot among the people."

Matt 27:62 The next day, the one after Preparation Day, the chief priests and the Pharisees went to Pilate. 63 "Sir," they said, "we remember that while he was still alive that deceiver said, 'After three days I will rise again.' 64 "So give the order for the tomb to be made secure until the third day. Otherwise, his disciples may come and steal the body and tell the people that he has been raised from the dead. This last deception will be worse than the first."

Mark 11:31 They [the chief priests, the teachers of the law, and the elders] discussed it among themselves and said, "If we say, 'From heaven,' he will ask, 'Then why didn't you believe him?' 32 But if we say, 'From men" (They feared the people, for everyone held that John really was a prophet.)

John 7:48 Has any of the rulers or of the Pharisees believed in him? 49 No! But this mob that knows nothing of the law—there is a curse on them.

The "people of the land" or "the [common] people" were those who did not fit into any particular political or religious group. They were generally unlearned and only marginally observant of the law. Consequently, the term was often used of the lower social classes (Oppenheimer 1972:833-836). By the Second Temple Period, the term had assumed a pejorative sense and referred to any (even aristocrats) who were untutored in or unresponsive to the requirements of Torah, especially as interpreted by the Pharisees.³⁹ Haverim used the term in this sense to designate those with whom they would not associate because such people ate their food with unclean hands.⁴⁰ Matthew's phrases, "tax collectors and sinners" (Matt 9:10-11; 11:19) or "the tax collectors and the prostitutes" (Matt 21:31-32) or even "a pagan or a tax collector" Matt 18:17), may be synonyms for common people.

As you read through the New Testament, especially the gospels, try to keep the distinctions of these various groups in mind. By doing so, you will develop a sensitivity to the political and religious context that is helpful for understanding the ministry of Jesus and of the early church. This is an important period in history, the time of the messiah's advent. Although it is sometimes difficult to keep these groups sorted out, try to remember their particular characteristics as you encounter them in the text, because that insight can often help you penetrate to the heart of an issue. Furthermore, if you can understand the people then and how they reacted to Jesus, you may also do a better job understanding people today; and you certainly need to understand people if you are going to communicate the gospel to them.

For the Bibliography and Endnotes see the pdf here.