Digging Up the Bible: The Elephantine Papyri

DIGGING UP THE BIBLE
Important Archeological Finds that help Us Understand Scripture
pdf
Linda Manuel—1996

Elephantine Papyri
(6^th-4^th century BC)

These papyri, folded neatly and sealed with clay bullae, are part of a cache of documents discovered on the Egyptian island of Elephantine (at Aswan along the Nile River). The hoard consists of legal contracts and personal correspondence, mostly in Aramaic, providing insight to the Jewish presence in Egypt during the Persian Period.

The Elephantine community probably started during Manasseh's reign as a military outpost. In 650 B.C. the king sent a small contingent of soldiers to support Pharaoh Psammetichus I in his fight against the Nubians in the south and against the Assyrians in the north. With his help, Psammetichus was able to declare independence (for a short time) and drive back the Assyrian forces. Israel, however, was not able to stop the invasion of its territory. The Northern Kingdom had already fallen to Assyrian forces (722 B.C.), and the Southern Kingdom became a vassal state. The Jewish soldiers at the outpost chose to remain in Egypt after Manasseh's defeat and deportation:

The king of Assyria took Manasseh prisoner, put a hook in his nose, bound him with bronze shackles and took him to Babylon. (2 Chr 3:11)

Perhaps as incentive to stay (on the first line of defense between Egypt and the ever-advancing Assyrian military), Pharaoh allowed the displaced Jews to build a temple to their God on the island of Elephantine. This was not an isolated accommodation; Egypt also allowed Arameans stationed on the mainland to build temples to their many gods.

Why the Jewish military outpost needed a temple is not clear. Some scholars think that clergy and laity loyal to the faith who fled Manasseh's state-sponsored paganism joined the garrison in Egypt to create a new community, and Isaiah's prophecy may have inspired them to build a temple:

In that day there will be an altar to the LORD in the heart of Egypt, and a monument to the LORD at its border. (Isa 19:19)

The Egyptian Jews did not have extensive resources, but they duplicated the dimensions and basic structure of Solomon's temple. They also performed the offerings biblical law required.

Although the date of construction is not certain, one of the papyri in the Elephantine collection states that the temple was standing before the Persian invasion in 525 B.C.:

During the days of the kings of Egypt [i.e., when Egypt was independent] our forefathers built that temple in the Elephantine fortress, and when [the Persian ruler] Cambyses entered Egypt, he found that temple built.

The temple remained untouched until 410 B.C. when Egyptian priests of the ram god Khum along with a wayward Persian official named Vidranga destroyed it.

Jedaniah, leader of the Jewish community at Elephantine, wrote to Baghohi, the Persian governor of Judah, to intercede on his behalf for the rebuilding of the temple:

Your servants Jedaniah and his colleagues and the Jews, all (of them) citizens of Elephantine, thus say: If to our lord it is good, take thought of that temple to (re)build it. Regard your obligees and your friends who are here in Egypt. May a letter from you be sent to them about the temple of the Lord the God to (re)build it in Elephantine the fortress just as it had been built formerly. And the meal offering and the incense and the burnt-offering they will offer on the altar of the Lord the God in your name and we shall pray for you at all times...

The reply to this letter was probably an oral message to Jedaniah through the person who delivered the letter to Bogohi. A small note, in the first person, did get permission to rebuild on the condition that they make only certain offerings there:

You may stay in Egypt before Arsames about the altar-house of the God of heaven which is in Elephantine the fortress was formerly built was formerly before Cambyses (and) which Vidranga, that wicked (man) demolished in year fourteen of King Darius: to (re)build it on its site as it was formally, and the meal offering and the incense they shall offer upon the altar just as formerly was done.

During the period of the first Elephantine temple, Manasseh's pagan reign ended and Josiah's major reforms centralized worship in Jerusalem again. Josiah's primary concern was to eliminate idolatry and to correct the perversion of blood sacrifices. His reforms, however, did not extend beyond the land of Israel. During the Persian Period, when the Elephantine Jews asked the governor of Judah to intercede with the Egyptian authorities for permission to rebuild their temple, the governor consulted the Jewish council in Jerusalem. The council agreed on condition that the Egyptian Jews not make animal sacrifices but did not restrict other offerings, perhaps in light of Malachi's prophecy:

"My name will be great among the nations, from the rising to the setting of the sun. In every place incense and pure offerings will be brought to my name, because my name will be great among the nations," says the LORD Almighty. (Mal 1:11)

Digging Up the Bible: The Cyrus Cylinder

DIGGING UP THE BIBLE
Important Archeological Finds that help Us Understand Scripture
pdf
Linda Manuel—1996

Cyrus Cylinder
(539-538 BC)

Hormuzd Rassam discovered this intricate clay artifact in Babylon during the late 19h century. It constitutes part of the Persian collection at the British Museum. The inscription is in Akkadian cuneiform on parallel lines around the circumference of the cylinder.

 

 

Two hundred years before Persia conquered Babylon, the Lord named Cyrus and described how He would employ this future king to liberate captive Israel:

This is what the LORD says to His anointed, to Cyrus, whose right hand I take hold of to subdue nations before him and to strip kings of their armor, to open doors before him so that gates will not be shut: I will go before you and will level the mountains; I will break down gates of bronze and cut through bars of iron. I will give you the treasures of darkness, riches stored in secret places, so that you may know that I am the LORD, the God of Israel, who summons you by name. For the sake of Jacob my servant, of Israel my chosen, I summon you by name and bestow on you a title of honor, though you do not acknowledge me. I am the LORD, and there is no other; apart from me there is no God. I will strengthen you, though you have not acknowledged me, so that from the rising of the sun to the place of its setting men may know there is none besides me. I am the LORD, and there is no other. (Isa 45:1-6)

This passage states that God would use Cyrus, although the king would "not acknowledge" Him. The Cyrus Cylinder chronicles the king's version of the same events. Cyrus did consider himself divinely appointed, but the deity he served was Marduk, the god of Babylon:

He scanned and looked through all the countries, searching for a righteous ruler willing to lead him [i.e., Marduk] in the annual procession. Then he pronounced the name of Cyrus (Ku-ra-as), King of Anshan, declared him [lit, 'pronounced his name'] to become the ruler of all the world... Marduk, the great lord, protector of his worshippers, beheld with pleasure his [i.e., Cyrus's] good deeds and his upright mind and ordered him to march against his [i.t., Marduk's] city Babylon.

Scripture records Cyrus's intention to release the Israelites and to fund the building of a new temple in Jerusalem:

In the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, in order to fulfill the word of the LORD spoken by Jeremiah, the LORD moved the heart of Cyrus king of Persia to make a proclamation throughout his realm and to put it in writing: "This is what Cyrus king of Persia says: "The LORD, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth, and he has appointed me to build a temple for him at Jerusalem in Judah. Anyone of his people among you—may his God be with him—let him go up to Jerusalem in Judah and build the temple of the LORD, the God of Israel, the God who is in Jerusalem. And the people of any place where survivors may now be living are to provide him with silver and gold, with goods and livestock, and with freewill offerings for the temple of God in Jerusalem." (Ezra 1:1-4).

The cylinder shows that Cyrus wanted to placate the gods of all the displaced peoples in the empire and ordered the restoration of other cultic centers as well.

I returned to these sacred cities on the other side of the Tigris River, the sanctuaries of which had been ruins for a long time, the images which used to live therein and established for them permanent sanctuaries.... Furthermore, I resettled them upon the command of Marduk, the great lord, all the gods of Sumer and Akkad whom Nabonidus had brought into Babylon to the anger of the lord of the gods, unharmed in their former chapels, the places which make them happy. May all the gods whom I have resettled in their sacred cities ask daily Bel and Nebo for long life for me, and may they recommend me to him; to Marduk, my lord....

The Cyrus Cylinder is a general record of what the king did for the peoples in his realm. He would have sent out individual documents to the various religious groups, perhaps even in different languages. The text of the cylinder is similar to the decree that appears in the Bible, although the original proclamation to Judah that Ezra quotes was probably in Aramaic, the official language of the Persian Empire. Nevertheless, that the God of Israel called Cyrus "by name" to deliver His people two hundred years before the Persian monarch was even born confirms that He is the LORD and that apart from Him "there is no other" (Isa 45:5, 6, 14, 18, 22).

 

Cyrus died in battle in 530 B.C. Little is known about the end of his reign, although his tomb still stands in Pasargadae (present day Iran).

 

 

This simple gabled edifice once bore the inscription: "O man, I am Cyrus the son of Cambyses, who founded the empire of Persia and was king of Asia. Grudge me not, therefore, this monument." When Alexander the Great viewed the tomb some two hundred years later, he ordered it restored and its treasures replaced because the humility of the man so impressed him. It is perhaps because of this attribute that God takes such an interest in Cyrus saying through Isaiah, "He is my shepherd" (44:28) and "[my] anointed" (45:1), and "[I will] make all his ways straight" (45:13). The Persian ruler created the largest empire at that point in history, yet he asked such a small token in death. While it is uncertain if Cyrus actually knew the LORD, his humility may have met with God's approval: "Though the LORD is on high, he looks upon the lowly" (Ps 138:6).

 

Significance for Biblical Studies: The Cyrus Cylinder corroborates Isaiah's record (8^th century B.C.) of Cyrus' decree (6^th century B.C.) for the restoration of Israel from captivity in Babylon. The prophet Isaiah predicted Cyrus would do this well before the Persian monarch actually came on the world scene.

For a pdf go here.

Digging Up the Bible: Cult Stand

DIGGING UP THE BIBLE
Important Archeological Finds that help Us Understand Scripture
pdf
Linda Manuel—1996

Cult Stand from Taanach
(10^th century BC)

In 1968 excavators discovered this four-tier stand at an Israelite high place. It depicts the LORD (the four-letter name of God) as the sun deity with a consort.

At an early date, Israel perverted its concept of worship by combining orthodox and heterodox elements. The LORD was an abstract, invisible entity whom the people never really understood. Some felt it necessary to connect God with concrete images to make Him more tangible. This perversion began before Israel entered the land and persisted for centuries, even though God's presence was in the sanctuary, and He demonstrated His power repeatedly.

To make God more comprehendible, the Israelites made Him more human by giving Him a consort, Asherah. Great men had female counterparts, so it is understandable that the creator of the universe should be married to the goddess of life. The stand's four tiers depict alternating reliefs of the LORD and Asherah:

Tier #1: The LORD's symbol..............Winged sun disk

Tier #2: Asherah's symbol ................Tree of life

Tier #3: The LORD's form..................?

Tier #4: Asherah's form ....................Woman

The first tier shows a horse prancing under a winged sun disk, between a pair of free-standing pillars. Each element relates in some way to syncretistic worship of the LORD. The horse represents an offering, a practice King Josiah condemned, and the winged sun-disc is a symbol of the LORD Himself:

He removed from the entrance to the temple of the LORD the horses that the kings of Judah had dedicated to the sun (2 Kgs 23:11).

The two pillars are a common symbol for the temple.

[Solomon] erected the pillars at the portico of the temple (1 Kgs 7:21) Cf. The bronze from the two pillars...King Solomon had made for the temple of the LORD, was more than could be weighed (Jer 52:20).

The second tier has a pair of ibex climbing the tree of life, Asherah's symbol; and two lions, representing royalty or deity, stand on either side of the ibex. The third tier has two cherubim with an empty space between them, like the cherubim that flank the presence of God in the temple:

In the inner sanctuary [Solomon] made a pair of cherubim of olive wood... (1 Kgs 6:23).

The fourth tier again shows two lions, here accompanying Asherah in human form. The symmetry of the tiers leads one to suspect that the third tier should contain a human likeness of the LORD. The empty space between two cherubim suggests that people regarded Him as an abstract, invisible deity.

There are other archeological examples like the stand that show how intertwined the worship of the LORD was with paganism. The picture below is a reproduction of a syncretistic Israelite blessing carved into the wall of a tomb at Khirbat el Kom, near Hebron: "...blessed...by the LORD...and his Asherah." The inscriber chiseled a large hand into the stone under the words, as if God Himself were extending His hand with the blessing.

Another example of religious syncretism is on a painted jar from Kuntillet 'Ajrud (in the Sinai peninsula). The relief shows five people looking upward (perhaps toward the sun) and lifting their hands in worship.

The inscription reads, "I bless you by the LORD of Teman and by His Asherah." The figure on the far left is also touching his lips as if blowing a kiss, a practice Job regards as sinful:

If I have regarded the sun in its radiance or the moon moving in splendor, so that my heart was secretly enticed and my hand offered them a kiss of homage, then these also would be sins to be judged, for I would have been unfaithful to God on high. (Job 31:26-28)

This drawing combines the same two elements as the cult stand, sun worship and God's consort.

These deviations from orthodoxy developed and prospered during the period when God's physical presence was in the sanctuary! It was rebellion He condemned repeatedly but most explicitly through Ezekiel:

I saw portrayed all over the walls all kinds of crawling things and detestable animals and all the idols of the house of Israel.... He said to me, "Son of man, have you seen what the elders of the house of Israel are doing in the darkness, each at the shrine of his own idol? Again, he said, "You will see them doing things that are even more detestable." ...He then brought me into the inner court of the house of the LORD, and there at the entrance to the temple, between the portico and the altar, were about twenty-five men. With their backs toward the temple of the LORD and their faces toward the east, they were bowing down to the sun in the east. (Ezekiel 8:10, 12-13, 16)

After showing the prophet these abominations, the LORD withdrew His presence from the temple and allowed Babylonian forces to decimate the nation, sending the survivors into exile.

Significance for Biblical Studies: The Cult Stand from Taanach illustrates the syncretism that existed in Israel as paganism sought to establish a foothold among God's people contrary to His explicit prohibition. He allows no competition and has no companion. So He commanded Moses, "Do not make any gods to be alongside me" (Exod 20:23). Again, "Do not set up any wooden Asherah pole beside the altar you build to the LORD your God" (Deut 16:2 1).

For a pdf go here.

Digging Up the Bible: Cult Shrine

DIGGING UP THE BIBLE
Important Archeological Finds that help Us Understand Scripture
pdf
Linda Manuel—1996

Cult Shrine at Ein Hatzeva—Biblical Tamar
(7^th century BC)

The excavators of Ein Hatzeva (biblical Tamar in southern Judah) found the foundation remains of a large Iron Age fortress and shrine. In a pit nearby were seventy-five cult objects. Large hewn stones covering the pit had concealed and crushed the items, but researchers were able to recover and reconstruct each one. Nevertheless, their destruction was deliberate, suggesting some kind of purge, perhaps connected to religious reform, such as that under King Josiah, who destroyed shrines and cult centers in an effort to bring worship back to Jerusalem:

Josiah...desecrated the high places, from Geba to Beersheba. (2 Kgs 23:8)

Josiah removed all the detestable idols from all the territory belonging to the Israelites. (2 Chr 34:33)

 

The cult objects at Ein Hatzeva identify the site as Edomite, but Edom was not friendly toward Israel. In fact the Edomites had refused the Israelites passage through their territory on the way to Canaan:

Edom answered: "You may not pass through here; if you try, we will march out and attack you with the sword." (Num 20:18)

This incident did not presage good relations between Israel and Edom.

 

After Israel's conquest of Canaan, Edom's position alternated between servant to God's people and independent from God's people:

• King David ruled over Edom:

All the Edomites became subject to David. (2 Sam 8:14)

• Edom rebelled against King David:

David was fighting with Edom. (1 Kgs 11:15)

• King Uzziah ruled over Edom:

You have indeed defeated Edom. (2 Kgs 14:10)

• Edom rebelled against King Ahaz:

The Edomites had again come and attacked Judah. (2 Chr 28:17)

So why was an Edomite shrine in Judean territory? The answer is probably that some of God's people succumbed to the attraction of paganism even when the source of that attraction was an enemy.

 

The shrine at Ein Hatzeva was close to the border with Edom, so it is not unusual that there would be some cross-border influence. Nevertheless, God was very clear about His condemnation of idolatry and about His insistence that the Israelites have nothing to do with the paganism of their neighbors:

The LORD said to Moses, "Speak to the Israelites and say to them: 'I am the LORD your God. You must not do as they do in Egypt, where you used to live, and you must not do as they do in the land of Canaan, where I am bringing you. Do not follow their practices. You must obey my laws and be careful to follow my decrees. I am the LORD your God. Keep my decrees and laws, for the man who obeys them will live by them. I am the LORD. (Lev 18:1-5)

It is an opinion He did not change even many years later: "Flee from idolatry" (1 Cor 10:14).

 

Significance for Biblical Studies: The cult shrine at Ein Hatzeva illustrates the tension that existed between worship of the true God and worship of false gods, even within the borders of Israel. It may also show one attempt to eradicate idolatry by destroying the many accouterments of paganism.

For a pdf go here.

Digging Up the Bible: Egyptian Brickmaking

DIGGING UP THE BIBLE
Important Archeological Finds that help Us Understand Scripture
pdf
Linda Manuel—1996
 

Egyptian Brickmaking—Rekh-mi-Re Tomb Painting
(14^th century BC)

When we consider the Book of Exodus, we usually think of Moses, the Red Sea, Israel's escape from bondage, and Mt. Sinai. Before God rescued the Israelites, however, the people had to make bricks. The Egyptians enslaved the Israelites after the death of Joseph and forced the people to build great storage facilities:

They put slave masters over them to oppress them with forced labor, and they built Pithom and Rameses as store cities for Pharaoh. But the more they were oppressed, the more they multiplied and spread; so the Egyptians came to dread the Israelites and worked them ruthlessly. They made their lives bitter with hard labor in brick and mortar and with all kinds of work in the fields; in all their hard labor the Egyptians used them ruthlessly. (Exod 1:11-14)

The Israelites had to make bricks, and the method they employed was already centuries old. They mixed dry clay with water, added chopped straw, pressed it into a mold, and left it in the sun. As the mixture dried, the straw began to decompose, releasing certain chemicals which made the clay stronger, more plastic and homogeneous. That was the normal procedure, until their taskmasters gave the people different instructions:

Pharaoh gave this order to the slave drivers and foremen in charge of the people: "You are no longer to supply the people with straw for making bricks; let them go and gather their own straw. But require them to make the same number of bricks as before; don't reduce the quota. They are lazy; that is why they are crying out, 'Let us go and sacrifice to our God.' Make the work harder for the men so that they keep working and pay no attention to lies." Then the slave drivers and the foremen went out and said to the people, "This is what Pharaoh says: 'I will not give you any more straw. Go and get your own straw wherever you can find it, but your work will not be reduced at all." So the people scattered all over Egypt to gather stubble to use for straw. (Exod 5:6-12)

Making bricks without straw caused them to dry brittle and more likely to break. The slaves had to produce a daily quota of usable bricks and faced severe punishment if they failed to meet it, so the Israelites had to make a greater number than usual:

The slave drivers kept pressing them, saying, "Complete the work required of you for each day, just as when you had straw." The Israelite foremen appointed by Pharaoh's slave drivers were beaten and were asked, "Why didn't you meet your quota of bricks yesterday or today, as before?" Then the Israelite foremen went and appealed to Pharaoh: "Why have you treated your servants this way? Your servants are given no straw, yet we are told, 'Make bricks!' Your servants are being beaten, but the fault is with your own people." Pharaoh said, "Lazy, that's what you are—lazy! That is why you keep saying, 'Let us go and sacrifice to the LORD.' Now get to work. You will not be given any straw, yet you must produce your full quota of bricks." The Israelite foremen realized they were in trouble when they were told, "You are not to reduce the number of bricks required of you for each day." (Exod 5:13-19)

This painting is from the tomb of Rekh-mi-Re in Thebes (see map below). He was Vizier of Upper Egypt for Thut-mose III (1490-1436 B.C.), who may have been the Pharaoh of Israel's enslavement. The tomb painting shows the main participants in the brickmaking process, including the task masters with whips and clubs (lower right). The hieroglyphs indicate that the workers are foreign captives, perhaps Israelites.

 

Significance for Biblical Studies: The Rekh-mi-Re Tomb Painting of Egyptian Brickmaking adds support for a conviction that the Bible preserves an accurate record of ancient events and practices. It also serves as a reminder that God did not abandon His people. As He says repeatedly:

I will remember the covenant with their ancestors whom I brought out of Egypt in the sight of the nations (Lev 26:45).

I will remember the covenant I made with you in the days of your youth, and I will establish an everlasting covenant with you (Ezek 16:60).

For a pdf go here.

Digging Up the Bible: Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III

DIGGING UP THE BIBLE
Important Archeological Finds that help Us Understand Scripture
pdf
Linda Manuel—1996

Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III
(c. 825 B.C.)

Austen Henry Layard discovered the Black Obelisk at Nimrud (northern Iraq) in 1846, one of several Assyrian royal chronicles scattered throughout the Middle East. Several stela record information about the political relationship between Israel and Assyria during the 9th century, and they document the existence of some Israelite kings in the Bible.

This stele is one of the most important finds ever made relating to the Bible. Five registers of relief sculpture (horizontal sections of four panels each depicting a series of scenes) decorate the four-sided limestone monument and show the collection of tribute from vassal states by Shalmaneser III (ruled 858-824 B.C.). The second register from the top on one side shows the presentation of tribute by "Jehu," king of Israel (ruled 841-814 B.C.). The central figure on the first panel of the register is prostrate at the feet of the Assyrian monarch. Some scholars have suggested that the figure is Jehu's emissary but, if it is Jehu himself, this panel is the only extant picture of an Israelite ruler from the First Temple Period.

The Assyrian record differs from the biblical text in two ways. First, the Bible lacks any mention of Jehu's paying tribute to Shalmaneser. This difference does not mean the scriptural account is incorrect. The Bible does not record every event in the lives of the kings. Second, and perhaps more significant, the stele calls Jehu "son of Omri." According to the biblical text, Jehu was not a descendant of Omri. In fact, Jehu destroyed the Omride dynasty:

You are to destroy the house of Ahab your master, and I will avenge the blood of my servants the prophets and the blood of all the LORD's servants shed by Jezebel. (2 Kgs 9:7)

Murder and usurpation were common occurrences in the northern kingdom of Israel, unlike Judah, where Davidic kings ruled continuously for four hundred years. Omri, an Israelite general, became king by attacking his predecessor (882 B.C.). He was succeeded by his son Ahab (ruled 871-852 B.C.) who, in turn, was succeeded first by one son, Ahaziah (ruled 871-552 B.C.), then by another son, Joram (ruled 851-842 B.C.) whom Jehu murdered. The death of Joram, however, did not satisfy Jehu. He also killed Ahab's seventy descendants as well as all in Ahab's court "leaving him no survivor" (2 Kgs 10:11).

The grisly paradox of the cuneiform inscription on the Black Obelisk is that it identifies Jehu as the son of Omri. If that is true, then Jehu murdered his own family. Throughout the biblical Ahab/Jehu cycle, the destroyed house is the house of Ahab, while the text does not mention the house of Omri. It is possible that Jehu was indeed a "son" of Omri, that is, a descendant of Omri—but through a different line from that of Ahab.

Alternatively, the Assyrians may have misunderstood Israelite politics or, more likely, applied their own policy for designating vassal states. Assyrian kings often identified other kingdoms by the name of the first king they encountered. Hence, if Omri was in power when Assyria made its initial contact with Israel, Assyria would thereafter call that nation "the house of Omri." If this was the case with Shalmaneser III, then "Jehu, son of Omri" was a national designation not a lineal one, and Jehu did not kill his own family.

Significance for Biblical Studies: Discoveries like the Black Obelisk confirm that events in the Bible are about real people in real time and help to substantiate the Bible as an historical document, thereby giving us confidence in what we believe. The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, a ruler the Bible mentions, confirms the involvement of the Assyrian monarch with the Northern Kingdom of Israel and with Jehu, one of its kings.

For a pdf go here.

Digging Up the Bible: Amarna Tablet

DIGGING UP THE BIBLE
Important Archeological Finds that help Us Understand Scripture
pdf
Linda Manuel—1996
 

Amarna Tablet

(late 15^th to early 14^th century B.C.)

In 1887 in the el-Amarna district of Upper Egypt, 195 miles south of Cairo and 225 miles north of Thebes, along the eastern bank of the Nile Rivera, a peasant discovered some clay tablets with Akkadian cuneiform writing. Archaeologists began excavating the site a few years later and found 350 similar tablets, each about the size of a 3x5 card. These documents were diplomatic correspondence between two pharaohs and their vassal kings in Canaan.

 

 

The El-Amarna letters reflect chaotic conditions in Canaan as various groups vie for control of the area. The king of Jerusalem addressed several letters to the pharaoh complaining about the Apiru:

As sure as there is a ship in the midst of the sea, the mighty arm of the king conquers Nahrim and Kapasi, but now the Apiru are taking the cities of the king. There is not a single governor remaining to the king, my lord. All have perished. (EA 288.33-40)

The name Apiru does not refer to a specific people. It is a general term for raiders, but some scholars have thought it might refer to Hebrew tribes advancing through the land.

 

Abdi-Khepa classifies all his enemies as Apiru, so it is difficult to identify any particular group. The situation in Canaan had so degenerated that, according to this king, the tribute he sent to Pharaoh was stolen by these marauders on its way to Egypt. This theft may have happened, but some reports imply that it would not have been beneath Abdi-Khepa to fabricate such a story to avoid paying his taxes.

 

Relations between vassal kingdoms were often unstable, fluctuating between conflict and cooperation. Suwardata, king of Hebron and Abdi-Khepa's neighbor to the south, complained to Pharaoh:

The king, my lord, should know that Abdi-Khepa has taken my city out of my hand. Further, let the king, my lord, ask if I have taken a man, or even an ox or ass from him.... Further, Lab'ayu who had taken our cities is dead, but verily Abdi-Khepa is another Lab'ayu, and he takes our cities. (EA 280.21-35)

On other occasions, however, Suwardata and Abdi-Khepa worked together against a common foe, the Apiru. Suwardata wrote, "The king, my lord, should know that the Apiru have arisen in the land which the god of the king, my lord, has given me.... I and Abdi-Khepa are left alone to fight." (EA 290a)

 

Significance for Biblical Studies: God's people did encounter resistance to their invasion, but it was generally limited to the local forces of a single city-sate. There was no central government, so they faced no Grand Army of Canaan, which enabled them to carry out a very vulnerable task unmolested: "After the whole nation had been circumcised, they remained where they were in camp until they were healed" (Josh 5:8). It further helped that the population of the land was divided, with "Canaanites, Hittites, Hivites, Perizzites, Girgashites, Amorites and Jebusites" (Josh 3:10), making it difficult to present a united front against invading forces. Consequently, the conquest was a series of engagements and skirmishes rather than one long war.

 

Some scholars believe that the Apiru are the Hebrews, but the evidence is inconclusive. What these texts do provide is a glimpse into the unstable political climate of Canaan when Israel arrives on the scene: vassal city-states fighting among themselves, harassed by bandits and ignored by Egypt, ideal conditions for God's people to invade and conquer.

For a pdf go here.

Included -1984

HE INCLUDED ME
pdf
Dr. Paul Manuel—1984

This past holiday season I had the privilege of participating with an Israeli family in a Passover Seder. The food—from gefilte fish to matzah-ball soup—was delicious, but the focus of the evening was clearly on the annual rehearsal of God's redemption of the Jewish people from slavery in Egypt. Through a variety of readings, integrating prayer, Scripture, and commentary, the liturgy repeatedly directed our attention to what the Lord has done in the past, yet always with the understanding that this divine event also included subsequent generations, even us today.

 

Upon reflection, I realized that the concept of inclusion is, to some degree, what Jesus was attempting to make his disciples see as they observed their final Passover together. He wanted them to realize that the significance of the holiday transcended the past and had very real implications for the present in establishing precedence for the Lord's intervention in history on behalf of His people, something God was repeating before their very eyes and which included them.

 

I was grateful for the openness of my Israeli hosts. The evening was most enjoyable. I was also grateful that the Lord made allowance for gentiles to participate in the Passover celebration:

An alien living among you who wants to celebrate the LORD's Passover must do so in accordance with its rules and regulations. You must have the same regulations for the alien and the native-born. (Num 9:14)

I am most grateful, of course, that in God's redemptive activity He included me.

A pdf can be found here.

A servant of the Lord (Isa 44:1-28)

NO HIGHER CALLING (Isa 44:1-28)
pdf
Dr. Paul Manuel—2017 

One of the characteristics of canines that humans find attractive is that a dog often knows what it means to be a servant more than a person does.

Jack is a police officer who would occasionally park his cruiser in residential areas to watch for speeders. One Sunday morning, Jack was staked out in a driveway when he saw a large dog trot up to his car, stop, and sit just out of arm's reach. No matter how much Jack tried to coax him to come for a pat on the head, he refused to budge. After a while, Jack decided to move to another location. He pulled out of the driveway, looked back, and learned the reason for the dog's stubbornness.... The dog quickly picked up the newspaper the cruiser had been parked on and dutifully ran back to his master.

A dog often knows what it means to be a servant more than a person does. It may mean delaying gratification until just the right moment. In the end, however, for a dog, his primary duty is to serve his master. So also for the believer; there is "No Higher Calling" than to serve the Lord.

To be called a servant of the Lord is an honor. It does not necessarily mean that such a person has a vital or indispensable role in advancing God's plan or merely that he makes a useful contribution to it. Hence, the biblical writers may apply the title ("servant") to the righteous or to the unrighteous, to those who consciously serve Him as well as to those who do not.¹ The greatest servants are, of course, those who assist Him willingly, even enthusiastically, who purposefully work for His interests (e.g., Moses).² The greatest involvement belongs to those whose servant position is the result of explicit divine election, like Israel. God states as much to Moses on more than one occasion:³

If you obey me fully and keep my covenant, then out of all nations you will be my treasured possession. Although the whole earth is mine, you will be for me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation. (Exodl9:5-6a)

I am the LORD your God, who has set you apart from the nations.... You are to be holy to me because I, the LORD, am holy, and I have set you apart from the nations to be my own. (Lev 20:24b, 26)

You are a people holy to the LORD your God. The LORD your God has chosen you out of all the peoples on the face of the earth to be his people, his treasured possession. (Deut 7:6)

The rest of scripture records the unfolding of God's program as Israel fulfills (and fails) the role He has for that nation.

A selection of non-Davidic Psalms

A SAMPLING OF NON-DAVIDIC PSALMS
pdf
Dr. Paul Manuel—2017

Psalm 45

For the director of music. To [the tune of] "Lilies."

Of the Sons of Korah. A maskil. A wedding song.

I. The psalmist extols the groom (Psalm 45:2-8).

A. He is a noble monarch (Psalm 45:2-5).

1. The king is politically successful (vv. 2-3).
2. The king is militarily powerful (vv. 4-5).

B. He represents a virtuous deity (Psalm 45:6-9).

1. The king is divinely supported (vv. 6-7).

2. The king is humanly regaled (vv. 8-9).

II. The psalmist extols the bride (Psalm 45:10-15).

A. She has forsaken her past (Psalm 45:10-12).

1. The bride is fully committed (v. 10).
2. The bride is physically comely (vv. 11-12).

B. She has embraced her future (Psalm 45:13-15).

1. The bride is majestically adorned (vv. 13-14a).
2. The bride is personally attended (vv. 14b-15).

III. The psalmist extols their offspring (Psalm 45:16-17).

• People anticipate a dynasty (Psalm 45:16-17).

1. There will be a smooth transition (v. 16).
2. There will be a stable succession (v. 17).

Marriage (Heb 13:4)

THE MODEL OF MARRIAGE (Heb 13:4)
pdf

Dr. Paul Manuel—2017

It is usually a good idea for two young people about to get married to seek advice from their parents.

Although the bride and groom were deeply in love, each had a very personal problem:

The groom asked his father for advice—"I am concerned about the success of my marriage because...I have very smelly feet all the time, and I'm afraid she will be put off by them." "No problem," his father replies. "Just wash your feet before you go to bed and always wear socks." This seemed a workable solution, and the young man thanked his father for the advice.

The bride asked her mother for advice—"I am concerned about the success of my marriage because...I have very smelly breath when I wake, and I'm afraid he will not want to sleep in the same room with me." "No problem," her mother replies. "Just go immediately into the bathroom when you awaken; brush your teeth and rinse your mouth. The key is not to say a word, not even 'Good morning' until you've done that." This seemed a workable solution, and the young woman thanked her mother for the advice.

The loving couple married, and both remembered the advice they had received, he with his perpetual socks and she with her morning silence. They managed quite well until about six months later. Shortly before dawn one morning, the husband wakes with a start to find that one of his socks has come off. Fearful of the consequences, he frantically searches the bed. This, of course, wakes his wife who, without thinking, asks, "What on earth are you doing?" "Oh, no," he replies..."you've swallowed my sock!"

It is usually a good idea for two young people about to get married to seek advice from their parents. It is also a good idea to follow God's advice in the scriptures, such as "The Model of Marriage" He offers in Heb 13:4.

The biblical writers use marriage as a model of God's relationship with man. Hosea, for example, uses Gomer's unfaithfulness to the prophet as an illustration of Israel's unfaithfulness to the Lord:

The LORD said to him, "Go, take to yourself an adulterous wife and children of unfaithfulness, because the land is guilty of the vilest adultery in departing from the LORD" (Hos 1:2).

Paul, in contrast, uses the savior' love for his Church as an illustration of a husband's love for his wife:

Husbands, love your wives, just as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her to make her holy.... In this same way, husbands ought to love their wives. (Eph 5:25-26a, 28a)

While examples like these in the Bible show negative and positive aspects of marriage and of what God intends for this institution, they are contrary to what society today claims:

Trustworthy sayings

THE FIVE TRUSTWORTHY SAYINGS OF PAUL
pdf
Dr. Paul Manuel—2014
 

 

Contents

I.	"To Save Sinners" (1 Tim 1:15)	pp. 02-07
II.	"A Noble Task" (1 Tim 3:1-7)	pp. 08-12
III.	"Value for All Things" (1 Tim 4:8-9)	pp. 13-17
IV.	"If We..." (2 Tim 2:11-13)	pp. 18-22
V.	"He Saved Us" (Tit 3:4-8a)	pp. 23-28
	Bibliography	pp. 29-30
	Endnotes	pp. 31-43

We live in a world of uncertainty where, despite our often careful planning, matters may not turn out as we expect or hope. Some times, the disappointment is simply annoying, as when the service we receive from a business is less than it should be.

A teacher was having trouble with her bank. Neither the bank's accuracy nor its mode of expression lived up to her standards. The last straw arrived in a form letter from the anonymous Delinquency Department that read: "It appears your account is overdrawn." She replied with an equally brief note: "Please write again when you are absolutely certain." (adapted from Hodgin 1994:43)

Other times our doubt reflects some urgency because disappointment would have serious consequences.

An American astronaut lay strapped in his capsule, awaiting liftoff, when a reporter asked via radio that typically annoying and irrelevant question: "How do you feel?" "How would you feel," the astronaut replied, "if you were sitting on top of 150,000 parts, each supplied by the lowest bidder?" (adapted from Hodgin 1994:309)

In this world of uncertainty, are there things of which we can be sure, especially in matters where disappointment would not merely be annoying but disastrous? Paul addresses this very question in a series of what he calls Trustworthy Sayings.

 

Most of Paul's thirteen letters he wrote to various churches, but four of them he sent to individuals. Those to Timothy and Titus are called the Pastoral Epistles because these men served as pastors in Ephesus and Crete. These men were Paul's protégé and were known among other churches.[1] He urges them to warn people against false doctrine and to stress the importance of sound teaching.[2] Paul quotes five "trustworthy sayings,"[3] so-called because, in the sea of competing ideas, these are "a faithful presentation of God's message" (Knight 1992:99). They appear just in the Pastoral Epistles and may have been theological confessions or the words of songs. Paul repeats them in these letters because they represent important truths for the believing community, truths a pastor should stress in his ministry and communicate to his congregation, and they will be the texts for our series.

Job — Lesson 4

THE BOOK OF JOB — LESSON 4
The Helping Hand Sabbath School Series

pdf

Dr. Paul Manuel—2004

 

William Blake 1823

Lesson #4: Job Chapters 38, 40

What Does It Mean?

However long Job's suspense and God's silence last, they eventually come to an end. Surely, Job should welcome the relief, but when the Lord finally speaks, it is not what Job expects and actually increases his anxiety. Instead of comforting Job, God confronts Job, berating him for challenging the divine will.

Lessor mortals might interpret God's chastening as the final insult, the ultimate proof that this deity cares only for Himself and has no concern for His creatures. They might say that Job's wife, despite her apparent cynicism, actually gave him the best counsel (Job 2:9). No matter how low Job seems to have fallen, though, he rises even to this occasion, maintaining his integrity in God's presence.

In chapter thirty-eight...

Much of God's earliest communication to man came through dreams and visions (Num 12:6), which could be quite terrifying (Dan 4:6), as Job attests (Job 7:14). Occasionally, God would make contact more overtly, couching His appearance in the form of a storm (Ezek 1:4, 28). As if hearing the voice of God were not unnerving enough, when accompanied by extreme weather—thunder and lightening—the experience is even more frightening (Exod 20:18-19). Add to this tumultuous setting the purpose of God's manifestation (theophany) to Job, not revelation but condemnation, and the effect is undoubtedly overwhelming.

 

Whatever Job may have assumed (Job 13:24; 23:3; 30:20; 31:35), God has not been inattentive either to Job's condition or to his complaint. When God finally does speak, it is to 'answer' (Job 38:1; 40:6). God makes no excuses for His earlier silence ("I was distracted by something else") and gives no explanation for Job's extensive suffering ("You really did deserve this because..."). Instead, He says that Job has no business questioning the creator ("Who...darkens my counsel...?") without having been present with Him at the creation ("Where were you when I...?"). What God has in mind when He refers to Job's absence at the beginning of things and to his ignorance about the origin of things is unclear. It may mean that Job is not allowed to challenge God's current activity or that he is simply not able to comprehend God's current activity. Either way, Job's charge, "God has wronged me" (Job 19:6), is an assessment man is not qualified to make.

 

While Job did not witness the creation, there were others who did and who celebrated that event. God uses parallelism, a feature common in Hebrew that relates the idea from one line to the idea in the next line by repeating certain elements. For example, in Ps 117:1, the two lines say essentially the same thing, with each part in the first line having a corresponding part in the second line.

Praise—the LORD—all you nations
Extol—Him—all you peoples.

Job 38:7 also seems to use synonymous parallelism.

The morning stars—sang together
All the angels—shouted for joy

Job — Lesson 3

THE BOOK OF JOB — LESSON 3
The Helping Hand Sabbath School Series
pdf
Dr. Paul Manuel—2004

William Blake 1823

Lesson #3: Job Chapters 27, 31

What Does It Mean?

Because it is possible to read the book of Job in a single sitting, we may lose some perspective on his situation. What is for us a matter of minutes may have been for Job a matter of months (Job 7:3; 29:2; perhaps longer). Initially, Job just sat (Job 2:8), probably in confusion as well as in pain. At some point, though, he may have tried to pull himself together and move on. Even so, Job still faced challenges to his integrity in everyday life.

In chapter twenty-seven...
Although Job continues to lament his plight and his friends continue to doubt his innocence, he refuses to become paralyzed or demoralized. He will not stop living and, equally important, he will not stop living righteously. He may have tasted "bitterness of soul," but he does not become embittered in spirit, angry at God and at the world. For Job to do otherwise would be to admit defeat and prove his detractors right (Job 27:5).

Job certifies his intention with an oath: "As surely as God lives" (Job 27:2). A speaker uses this formula to impress his listener(s) with his resolve to act according to his word.

• Boaz certifies with an oath his intention to redeem Naomi's property if the next of kin refuses (Ruth 3:13).
• Micaiah certifies with an oath his intention to speak the truth regardless of the threats against him (1 Kgs 22:14).
• King Zedekiah certifies with an oath his intention to protect Jeremiah despite the political pressure to execute him (Jer 38:16).

The seriousness of the oath is that it calls upon God to hold the speaker accountable for his promise and, should he renege or otherwise fail to keep that promise, invites God to punish him.

Job's malady precludes him from pursuing the active lifestyle he once enjoyed. His movement is now limited and painful. He is still able to speak his mind, however, and his words have become the chief indication of his spiritual condition (Job 27:4). If Job fails to demonstrate his righteousness in his speech, he invites God to make his suffering worse. It is a bold assertion that Job does not make lightly, for he has already experienced what he assumes is a taste of God's displeasure.

Job — Lesson 2

THE BOOK OF JOB — LESSON 2
The Helping Hand Sabbath School Series
pdf
Dr. Paul Manuel—2004
 

William Blake 1823

Lesson #2: Job Chapters 9, 13, 19, 23

 

What Does It Mean?

The author of this book does not indicate how long Job's condition lasted. It was certainly not a momentary affliction, like a bout with the flu. As his suffering dragged on, with no diagnosis of the cause and prognosis of a cure, Job longs to find a reason for his trouble. The four passages in this lesson depict four stages in Job's struggle, all of which testify to his integrity in seeking God.

Job knows nothing of Satan's involvement. Moreover, God has said nothing to Job, and that silence has only increased Job's misery. All Job has to work with are his own assertion of his innocence (Job 6:10, 24; 7:20; 9:20) and his friends' assumption of his guilt (Job 4:7-8; 8:6).

In chapter nine...
Job thinks that God has afflicted him and wishes that he could appear before God to resolve the problem. If only there were a judicial body to oversee such matters, a forum where Job could face his accuser and defend himself against whatever charge God has leveled against him.

Elsewhere in scripture, especially in the prophets, God uses the courtroom motif when accusing people of sin. Most of those examples depict God as the judge, ready to issue a guilty verdict (Isa 3:13-14). Occasionally, He may call for testimony on behalf of the plaintiff (Isa 41:21; 43:26), or He may call His own witnesses to certify the accuracy of the charges (Mic 6:1-2).

Job wants an independent body to adjudicate his case, one that is not predisposed against him, one that can stay God's hand until the problem is resolved. He seeks a higher authority, before which he and God could both appear and argue their respective positions. Alas, there is no such authority, for nothing is greater than God.